South Koreans rushed to the battlefield of Vietnam War

In recent years, South Korea has seen a sudden surge in Vietnamese restaurants, where pho, or bowls of rice noodles with bean sprouts, and other dishes are popular.

Nguyen Thong Long stands on the site where his mother and younger sister were killed in 1966 in the Vietnamese village of Thai Binh, Binh Dinh province. In the background stands a monument dedicated to their memories.(IZUMI SAKURAI)

John F. Kennedy

Park Chung Hee (1917-1979), a former South Korean military officer and president, studied at the Japanese Manchurian military academy and the Imperial Military Academy. Park, who was assigned to the Kwantung Army, an Imperial Japanese Army unit based in China, became a major general of the South Korean army after World War II. He led a military coup and seized power on May 16, 1961. Park was elected president in 1963 after assuming the roles of chairman of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction and the acting president. During his term in office, South Korea achieved rapid economic growth. However, the administration formed cozy ties with big businesses and gave rise to corruption. Park revised the Constitution, which had banned presidents from seeking a third consecutive term, and strengthened his authoritarian rule. He clamped down on his political enemies and suppressed the pro-democracy movement. Park was shot to death by his aide Kim Jae Gyu, director of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency, at a dinner party on Oct. 26, 1979.

Roughly 10,100 South Korean men got hitched with Vietnamese women in 2006, up more than 70 percent from the previous year, according to the South Korean government.

As far as international marriage partners are concerned, Vietnam is the second most common nationality after China. The trend is most notable in rural farming and fishing communities that are facing a serious shortage of single women.

When I arrived at Ho Chi Minh City, the airport was packed with South Korean tourists.

More than 430,000 South Koreans are believed to have visited Vietnam in 2007. The figure was only second to travelers from China.

Both South Korea and Vietnam have been traditionally under the influence of Confucianism. Perhaps that is why peoples of the two countries respect elders and have strong familial ties.

Still, it is not only these common traits that have tied South Koreans and Vietnam together. A key factor is the Vietnam War.

To support South Vietnam, South Korea dispatched about 320,000 troops, mostly to central Vietnam, between 1964 and 1973.

Along with medical teams, units of elite soldiers bearing such gallant names as "fierce tigers," "white horses" and "blue dragons" were sent. The number of troops was only second to the United States, the instigator of the conflict.

In addition to soldiers, many South Koreans went to Vietnam as migrant workers on military-related jobs. It is said that some of them struck it rich and built large houses upon their return.

The War Memorial of Korea in Seoul was crowded with soldiers in uniform.

Among the exhibits was the following explanation on South Korea's dispatch of troops: "The support to free Vietnam, which was fighting against Communist aggressors, was part of (South Korea's) national defense policy for collective security."

The memorial proudly bears illustrations showing how South Korean troops mopped up members of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam, better known as the Viet Cong, who were hiding in caves.

"The Viet Cong fought against American soldiers, but they fled when they saw South Korean soldiers because they were scared of them," I heard a teacher explaining to a group of high school students.

'A just cause and a practical gain'

Be that as it may, why did South Korea send so many troops to fight a war that seemingly had nothing to do with its own security?

Park Keun Ho, a professor of development economics at Shizuoka University, has studied the impact of South Korea's participation in the Vietnam War on its own economy.

Having examined U.S. diplomatic documents, Park, 45, concluded that South Korea's dispatch of troops was a "product of a just cause and a practical gain."

According to Park, the "just cause" was South Korea's repayment to the United States for siding with it in the Korean War. What about the "practical gain?"

At the time, U.S. Ambassador to South Korea Winthrop Brown reported to U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey that South Korea's dispatch of troops could kill three birds with one stone and also bring additional benefits.

The three birds were South Korea's economic development, the strengthening of South Korea-U.S. ties and the enhancement of the combat capability of South Korean forces.

Having come to power following a coup in May 1961, Park Chung Hee, chairman of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction, visited the United States in November the same year.

Park, who later became president, met with U.S. President John F. Kennedy and offered to send troops to Vietnam. He wanted to win U.S. favor and have Washington recognize the legitimacy of his military regime.

The dispatch started in September 1964 after Kennedy, assassinated the previous November, was succeeded by Lyndon B. Johnson. The first group was made up of medical teams and tae kwon do instructors.

"President Park and leaders of his government were well aware that Japan had achieved postwar reconstruction with special procurements from the Korean War," professor Park said.

"South Korea tried to achieve economic development by actively taking part in the Vietnam War and profiting from special procurements."

South Korea was suffering from an acute shortage of foreign currency reserves after the United States reduced its aid.

As a means to get its economy back on track, South Korea counted on special procurements and aid from the United States in return for its participation in the Vietnam War as well as the introduction of economic cooperation funds following normalization of diplomatic relations with Japan in 1965.

Soldiers, workers and companies all rushed to the battlefield under the slogan, "Don't miss the bus to Vietnam."

According to Park, South Korea earned $1.022 billion between 1965 and 1972 in special procurements from the United States for the Vietnam War.

Of the total, 72 percent came from non-trade proceeds such as remittances from workers and soldiers, road construction, dredging work and transportation.

"South Korea had no choice but to provide labor because it had no commodities to sell," said Park.

Large corporate groupings that would later develop into chaebol conglomerates, such as Hyundai, Hanjin, Daewoo and Samsung, all built their foundation with special procurements.

The Vietnam War ended with the fall of Saigon in 1975.

While President Park was assassinated four years later, he was succeeded by Chun Doo Hwan and later by Roh Tae Woo, both of whom were former military officers who commanded troops in Vietnam.

Anyone who dared to speak publicly about the negative aspects of the war had to brace themselves for imprisonment.

In 1999, an event that shook South Koreans' perception of the Vietnam War occurred.

Hankyoreh 21, a major weekly news magazine, ran an article to the effect that South Korean forces had killed large numbers of innocent Vietnamese civilians, including elderly people, children and women.

The story was written by Ku Su Jeong, a graduate student of history who had been studying in Vietnam since 1993.

South Korea normalized diplomatic relations with Vietnam in 1992. Kim Dae Jung, who had been long persecuted by South Korea's military government, won the presidential election at the end of 1997.

It was under such circumstances that the Pandora's box was opened.

In Ho Chi Minh City, I met Ku, 41, who is still researching the atrocities.

She said what prompted her to uncover the truth was an internal document drawn up by Vietnamese authorities that she came across. It made reference to massacres of civilians by South Korean forces.

"I was shocked by the report, which stated (South Korean troops) killed pregnant women and children," Ku said. "I interviewed survivors and confirmed that the contents of the report were true."

Based on her interviews, Ku believes that at least 9,000 people were slain in various massacres.

I visited the Vietnamese province of Binh Dinh, where South Korean forces were stationed during the war.

In the village of Thai Binh, ducks and chickens roamed freely while water buffaloes lazed in rice paddies.

"Look at my scar," Nguyen Thong Long, 56, implored, abruptly pulling down his pants to show his mauled legs.

Shards of a hand grenade are still buried inside his body. When the pain is unbearable, he drinks heavily, Long said with a red face.

The incident occurred in February 1966.

Just after 9 a.m., South Korean soldiers who entered the village gathered 68 villagers and forced them to lie face down. Then they started shooting and tossing hand grenades at them.

Long's sister Hong, who was 12, was killed with a shot to the head. His mother had both her legs blown off.

Recalling the scene, Long burst into tears.

"Just before she died, my mother cried for help. I couldn't move because I was injured in the legs," he said. "I feel so sorry because I couldn't do anything for my mother."

Only Long and two others survived the carnage.

Next to a memorial on which the names of the victims are inscribed stands a mural that depicts a scene of soldiers from the "fierce tiger" unit running after villagers.

The soldiers, wearing the insignia of a tiger, are carrying hand grenades. Villagers are crying helplessly as their homes are being torched.

Pointing at the mural, Long said, "Park Chung Hee's army was really frightening."

'Anti-communist ideology'

In Vietnam, museums in several provinces where massacres took place are still investigating the atrocities.

"Babies less than 12 months old and elderly people were killed," said Nguyen Thi Kimhoa, 47, deputy director of the museum in Phu Yen province. "Do babies and old people carry weapons? They are defenseless. It was really horrible."

Kimhoa, who heads the province's investigation, read a report that lists the sites of various massacres and the number of victims. She has confirmed that a total of 679 people were killed at 33 locations throughout the province.

Why did South Korean troops kill so many unarmed civilians?

Han Hong Gu, a professor of South Korean modern history at SungKongHoe University, said it all had to do with the 1950-53 Korean War.

"The soldiers had experienced the Korean War. They had grown up amid anti-communist ideology that taught them communists are not human and must be killed," Han said. "They were psychologically prepared for the 'Red Purge.'"

Ku's article, meanwhile, moved citizens and leaders of pro-democracy movements in South Korea.

Koh Kyoung Tae, 40, a reporter with Hankyoreh 21, led a campaign to condemn the massacres.

"We were victims of Japanese colonial rule. We thought we were victims in the Vietnam War, too, because South Korean soldiers were exposed to defoliants and other harsh conditions," he said. "Once the massacres came to light, however, it became clear that we were actually victimizers."

With donations from readers, a memorial park dedicated to the victims of the massacres was erected in Vietnam.

Acts of apology and reconciliation by citizens continue.

A citizens group erected a monument and supported survivors with financial aid and helping with home repairs. Doctors have worked as volunteers to examine villagers, and young people have organized camps to study history in the villages.

As if prompted by grass-roots movements, the South Korean government is supporting the construction of schools and hospitals in Vietnam.

In 1998, then South Korean President Kim Dae Jung visited Hanoi. Referring to the Vietnam War, he said: "I feel regret that at one time in the past, there was an unfortunate period."

In response, then Vietnamese Prime Minister Phan Van Khai only said, "Let us put an end to the past and look to the future."

He apparently decided not to be drawn into the war-related issues because South Korea is an important partner for Vietnam, which is promoting economic development under the communist government's policy of reform and openness known as doi moi.

The South Korean military has yet to conduct an official investigation into the massacres committed during the Vietnam War.

The administration of former President Roh Moo-hyun, which advocated "comprehensive settlement of the past," failed to address this issue although it looked into human rights violations by past military regimes.

The Vietnam War, meanwhile, continues to cast a dark shadow over the lives of many South Koreans.

More than 100,000 soldiers who fought in Vietnam suffer from illnesses believed to be the aftereffects of being exposed to defoliants sprayed by U.S. forces.

Some of them have developed mental disorders as a result of traumatic experiences.

Kim Tae Gun, 62, served as a member of the "fierce tiger" unit for two years from 1965. He developed splitting headaches that rendered him unconscious soon after returning to South Korea.

The Seoul resident has been in and out of hospital since then and has been unable to work.

"I went to war for my country, and this is what I got," said Kim, who cannot walk because his left leg has withered and become numb from the effects of defoliants. "It's hard because there is no cure."

Kim is now widowed and lives alone on meager disability benefits he receives from the government.

Fact File: Vietnam War

After World War II, France, which had formerly ruled Vietnam as a colonial power, dispatched troops to the country in an attempt to colonize it again. But France was forced to withdraw following its defeat in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954.

Vietnam was temporarily divided at the 17th parallel under the Geneva Conference, but the divided nations remained at odds.

The northern part was ruled by the socialist Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) under President Ho Chi Minh, while the south came under the control of the capitalist Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam).

In the south, the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam, better known as the Viet Cong, was formed in 1960. The group adopted guerrilla warfare tactics and fought against American and South Vietnamese forces with the backing of North Vietnam.

In 1962, the United States set up a local military command to support South Vietnam and openly began interventions. The policy was based on the "domino theory" that if North Vietnam gained power in the U.S.-Soviet Cold War, it could lead to the spread of communism throughout the world.

In August 1964, the United States claimed that its warships had been attacked by North Vietnamese naval forces on the high seas.

The incident, known as the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, prompted U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson to launch an air raid on North Vietnam and order the landing of Marines.

But South Vietnamese people, fed up with corruption and authoritarian rule, had lost faith in their government. South Vietnamese authorities could not even suppress attacks by the Viet Cong.

The United States decided to withdraw, faced with swelling war spending, loss of lives and the growing international anti-war movement.

In January 1973, the Paris Peace Accords were signed by North Vietnam, South Vietnam, the United States and the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam.

But North Vietnam and the Viet Cong strengthened their offensive. The war officially ended when the South Vietnamese government collapsed following the fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975. Saigon is now known as Ho Chi Minh City.

A unified election was held the following year, and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was established.

The United States lost 58,000 lives, and 300,000 were injured in the war. The death toll on the Vietnam side is said to be anywhere from more than 1 million to more than 2 million.

International battle during Cold War

The Vietnam War was an international war in which a large number of countries took part under the Cold War regime.

China dispatched units to engage in air defense operations and road construction to socialist North Vietnam.

The former Soviet Union sent military advisers, while North Korea dispatched air force pilots to support North Vietnam.

In 1954, the United States took the initiative to form the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) to stop communism from spreading in Southeast Asia.

In addition to the United States, SEATO members, such as Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines and Thailand, sent troops to South Vietnam. South Korea, Taiwan and Spain also dispatched troops.

Japan provided economic assistance to South Vietnam partly in response to a U.S. request, although it did not take part in the fighting.

In addition, U.S. forces made sorties from military bases on Okinawa, which had remained under U.S. control until 1972.

U.S. bases on the Japanese mainland, including those in Yokosuka, Kanagawa Prefecture, and Sasebo, Nagasaki Prefecture, also played important roles, such as provision of supplies and repairs under the Japan-U.S. security arrangement.

U.S. soldiers wounded in Vietnam were brought to Japan to receive medical treatment.

Movements against the Vietnam War surged in the United States and Europe in the late 1960s.

In Japan, writer and peace activist Makoto Oda (1932-2007) and others founded "Betonamu ni Heiwa o Shimin Rengo" (Citizens' League for Peace in Vietnam) in 1965 and led the anti-war movement.(IHT/Asahi: March 2,2008)